Parenting Resources

Comprehensive APA-Style Bibliography on Corporal Punishment, Physical Discipline, and No Hit Zones (A–Z)

1. Affif, T. O., Brownridge, D. A., Cox, B. J., & Sareen, J. (2006). Physical punishment, childhood abuse and psychiatric disorders. Child Abuse and Neglect, *30*, 1093-1103.
2. Afifi, T. O., Ford, D., Gershoff, E. T., Merrick, M., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ports, K. A., & MacMillan, H. L. (2017). Spanking and adult mental health impairment: The case for the designation of spanking as an adverse childhood experience. Child Abuse & Neglect, *71*, 24-31.
3. Afifi, T. O., Fortier, J., Sareen, J., & Taillieu, T. (2019). Associations of harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment in childhood with antisocial behaviors in adulthood. JAMA Network Open, 2(1), e187374. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.7374
4. Afifi, T. O., et al. (2017). The relationships between harsh physical punishment and other forms of child maltreatment and later outcomes (national samples / public-health analyses). BMC Public Health, 17, Article 1 (2017). BioMed Central
5. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. J. (1974). Infant-mother attachment and social development: “Socialization” as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In M. P. Richards (Ed.), The integration of a child into a social world (pp. 99-135). Cambridge University Press.
6. Alampay, L. P., Godwin, J., Lansford, J. E., Bombi, A. S., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater-Deckard, K., Di Giunta, L., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., Pastorelli, C., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Tapanya, S., Tirado, L. M. U., Zelli, A., Al-Hassan, S. M., & Bacchini, D. (2017). Severity and justness do not moderate the relation between corporal punishment and negative child outcomes. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(4), 491–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025417697852
7. Alexander, R. (2019). 34.3 NO HIT ZONES: WHAT, WHY, AND HOW?. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(10), S49-S50.
8. Allison, M. A., Beers, N., Peterson, J. W., O’Leary, S. C., Bode, S., Baum, M., Connor, K. A., Frank, E., Gibson, E., Larkin, M., Newman, T., Okuizumi-Wu, Y., Padrez, R., Schumacher, H., Goddard, A., King, K., Ryst, E., & McCarty, C. (2023). Corporal punishment in schools. PEDIATRICS, 152(3). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2023-063284
9. American Psychological Association. Resolution on Physical Discipline by Parents. February, 2019
10. Andero, A. A., & Stewart, A. (2002). Issue of Corporal Punishment: Re-Examined. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 29(2).
11. Asdigian, N.L. & Straus, M.A., There was an old woman who lived in a shoe: Number of children and corporal punishment. 1997, Durham, New Jersey: Family Research Laboratory, University of New Hampshire.
12. Ateah, C., & Durrant, J. E. (2005). Maternal use of physical punishment in response to child misbehavior: Implications for child abuse prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, *29*, 169-185.
13. Ateah, C., & Parkin, C.M., Childhood experiences with and current attitudes toward corporal punishment. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 2002. *21*(1): p. 35-46.
14. Ateah, C., Disciplinary practices with children: Parental sources of information, attitudes, and educational needs. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 2003. *26*: p. 89-101.
15. Avezum, M. D. M. M., Altafim, E. R. P., Linhares, M. B. M., & University of São Paulo. (2022). Spanking and Corporal Punishment Parenting Practices and Child Development: A Systematic review. In TRAUMA, VIOLENCE, & ABUSE (Vols. 24–24, Issue 5, pp. 3094–3111). The Author(s). https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221124243
16. Avinun, R., Davidov, M., Mankuta, D., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2017). Predicting the use of corporal punishment: Child aggression, parent religiosity, and the BDNF gene. Aggressive Behavior, 44(2), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21740
17. Azrin, N. H., & Holz, W. C. (1966). Punishment. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior (pp. 380-447). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
18. Aucoin, K. J., Frick, P. J., & Bodin, S. D. (2006). Corporal punishment and child adjustment. Journal of applied developmental psychology, 27(6), 527-541.
19. Bai, R., Gilbert, H., Taylor, C. A., et al. (2023). Evaluation of a medical-center staff bystander intervention training for No-Hit-Zones: an innovative strategy to change social norms regarding hitting children. (Pilot evaluation / PDF report). https://nohitzone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/EVALUATION-OF-A-MEDICAL-CENTER-STAFF-BYSTANDER-INTERVENTION-TRAINING-FOR-NO-HIT-ZONES-AN-INNOVATIVE-STRATEGY-TO-CHANGE-SOCIAL-NORMS-REGARDING.pdf.
20. Baker, A. J., LeBlanc, S. S., & Schneiderman, M. (2021). Do Parenting Resources Sufficiently Oppose Physical Punishment?. Child Welfare, 99(2), 77-98.
21. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1959). Adolescent aggression. New York: Ronald Press.
22. Baniamin, H. M. (2021). Variations in the acceptance of parental corporal punishment of children: what matters? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(19–20), NP18006–NP18031. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211035856
23. Bassam, E., Marianne, T. B., Rabbaa, L. K., & Gerbaka, B. (2018). Corporal punishment of children: discipline or abuse? Libyan Journal of Medicine, 13(1), 1485456. https://doi.org/10.1080/19932820.2018.1485456
24. Barkin, S., Scheindlin, B., Ip, E. H., Richardson, I., & Finch, S. (2007). Determinants of parental discipline practices: A national sample from primary care practices. Clinical Pediatrics, *46* (1), 64-69.
25. Bean, A.W. & Roberts, M.W., The effect of time-out release contingencies on changes in child noncompliance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 1981. *9*(1): p. 95-105.
26. Beauchaine, T. P., Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2005). Mediators, moderators, and predictors of 1-year outcomes among children treated for early-onset conduct problems: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, *73*, 371-388.
27. Becker, J. (2017). Corporal punishment: Legal reform as a route to changing norms. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/06/15/corporal-punishment-legal-reform-route-changing-norms 
28. Beller, J., Kröger, C., & Kliem, S. (2019). Slapping them into heaven? individual and social religiosity, religious fundamentalism, and belief in Heaven and hell as predictors of support for corporal punishment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(15–16), NP8482–NP8497. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519842857
29. Benatar, D. (1998). Corporal punishment. Social Theory and Practice, 24(2), 237-260.
30. Bender, H. L., Allen, J. P., McElhaney, K. B., Antonishak, J., Moore, C. M., Kelly, H. O., & Davis, S. M. (2007). Use of harsh physical discipline and developmental outcomes in adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, *19*, 227-242.
31. Benjet, C., & Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Spanking children: The controversies, findings and new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, *23*, 197-224.
32. Berger, A.M., Knutson, J.F., Mehm, J.G., & Perkins, K.A., The self-report of punitive childhood experiences of young adults and adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 1988. *12*: p. 251-262.
33. Berger, E., National Report on Inter-Generation Abuse. 2001, Toronto: Berger Population Health Monitor.
34. Bernard, C., Corporal Punishment as a Means of Correcting Children. 1998, Montreal, PQ: Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse.
35. Bertero, E., Morton, B., Runyan, D., & Taylor, C. A. (2020). Provider perspectives on implementing a hospital-based No Hit Zone. Children and Youth Services Review, *118*, 105399.
36. Bitensky, S. H. (1997). Spare the rod, embrace our humanity: Toward a new legal regime prohibiting corporal punishment of children. U. Mich. JL Reform, 31, 353.
37. Bitensky, S. H. (2006). Corporal punishment of children: A human rights violation. Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers.
38. Black, D. A., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2001). Risk factors for child physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior, *6*(2-3), 121-188.
39. Block, N. (2013). Breaking the paddle: Ending school corporal punishment. Center for Effective Discipline.
40. Bower, M.E., & Knutson, J.F., Attitudes toward physical discipline as a function of disciplinary history and self-labelling as physically abused. Child Abuse & Neglect, 1996. *20*: p. 689-699.
41. Bower-Russa, M. E., Knutson, J. F., & Winebarger, A. (2001). Disciplinary history, adult disciplinary attitudes, and risk for abusive parenting. Journal of Community Psychology, *29*, 219-240.
42. Boyson, R. (2002). Equal protection for children: An overview of the experience of countries that accord children full legal protection from physical punishment. London: National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.
43. Brezina, R., Teenage violence toward parents as an adaptation to family strain; Evidence from a national survey of male adolescents. Youth & Society, 1999. *416*: p. 424-425.
44. Bright, M. A., Lynne, S. D., Masyn, K. E., Waldman, M. R., Graber, J., & Alexander, R. (2019). Association of Friday school report card release with Saturday incidence rates of agency-verified physical child abuse. JAMA pediatrics, 173(2), 176-182.
45. Bugental, D. B., Martorell, G. A., & Barraza, V. (2003). The hormonal costs of subtle forms of infant maltreatment. Hormones and Behavior, *43*, 237-244.
46. Buntain-Ricklefs, J.J., Kemper, K.J., Bell, M., & Babonis, T., Punishments: What predicts adult approval. Child Abuse & Neglect, 1994. *18*(11): p. 945-955.
47. Burt, S. A., Clark, D. A., Gershoff, E. T., Klump, K. L., & Hyde, L. W. (2021). Twin differences in harsh parenting predict youth’s antisocial behavior. Psychological Science, 32(3), 395–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620968532
48. Bussmann, K. D. (2004). Evaluating the subtle impact of a ban on corporal punishment of children in Germany. Child Abuse Review: Journal of the British Association for the Study and Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 13(5), 292-311.
49. Bussmann, K. D., Erthal, C., & Schroth, A. (2010). Effects of banning corporal punishment in Europe: A five-nation comparison. In: Global pathways to abolishing physical punishment (pp. 315-338). Routledge.
50. Campbell, S. B., Pierce, E. W., Moore, G., Marakovitz, S., & Newby, K. (1996). Boys’ externalizing problems at elementary school age: Pathways from early behavior problems, maternal control, and family stress. Development and Psychopathology, *8*, 701-719.
51. Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law v. Canada (Attorney General). 2000: Ontario Superior Court of Justice.
52. Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law v. Canada (Attorney General). 2002: Ontario Court of Appeal.
53. Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law v. Canada (Attorney General). 2004: S.C.J. No.4.
54. Canadian Press & Leger Marketing, Child Abuse Report. 2002, Montréal: Canadian Press & Leger Marketing.
55. Cast, A. D., Schweingruber, D., & Berns, N. (2006). Childhood physical punishment and problem solving in marriage. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, *21*, 244-261.
56. Catron, T. F., & Masters, J. C. (1993). Mothers’ and children’s conceptualizations of corporal punishment. Child Development, *64*, 1815-1828.
57. Center for Effective Discipline (2007). Discipline at school: 94 of the 100 largest school districts in the U.S. protect 10,045,925 students from paddling. Columbus, OH: Author.
58. Chen, X., Dong, Q., & Zhou, H. (1997). Authoritative and authoritarian parenting practices and social and school performance in Chinese children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, *21*(4), 855-873. 
59. Chiocca, E. M. (2017). American Parents’ Attitudes and Beliefs about Corporal Punishment: An Integrative Literature review. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 31(3), 372–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2017.01.002
60. Chung, K. L., Tay, C. E., Gan, A. Z. Q., & Tan, C. S. N. (2021). Attitudes toward corporal punishment of children. Journal of Individual Differences. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000364
61. Clemens, V., Decker, O., Plener, P. L., Witt, A., Sachser, C., Brähler, E., & Fegert, J. M. (2020). Authoritarianism and the transgenerational transmission of corporal punishment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 106, 104537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104537
62. Clark*, J. (2004). Against the corporal punishment of children. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(3), 363-371.
63. Clément, M. E., Bouchard, C., Jetté, M., Laferrière, S. (2000). La violence familiale dans la vie des enfants du Québec [“Family Violence in the Lives of Québec’s Children”]. Québec, Institut de la Statistique du Québec.
64. Cohen, C. P. (1984). Freedom from corporal punishment: One of the human rights of children. NYL Sch. Hum. Rts. Ann., 2, 95.
65. Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (1995). The reciprocal influence of punishment and child behavior disorder. In J. McCord (Ed.), Coercion and punishment in long-term perspectives (pp. 154-164). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
66. Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. American Academy of Pediatrics (2002). When inflicted skin injuries constitute child abuse. Pediatrics, 110(3), 644–645. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.110.3.644 
67. Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2006). *General Comment No. 8 (2006): The right of the child to protection from corporal punishment and/or cruel or degrading forms of punishment (articles 1, 28(2), and 37, inter alia) (CRC/C/GC/8)* . Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations.
68. Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Doc CRC/C/15/Add 37. 1995.
69. Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Doc CRC/C/34. 1994.
70. Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Doc CRC/C/15/Add 215. 2003.
71. Coontz, P. D., & Martin, J. A. (1988). Understanding violent mothers and fathers: Assessing explanations offered by mothers and fathers of their use of control punishment. In G. T. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatrick, & M. A. Straus (Eds.), Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research (pp. 77-90). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
72. Corral-Verdugo, V., Frías-Armenta, M., Romero, M., & Munoz, A., Validity of a scale measuring beliefs regarding the “positive” effects of punishing children: A study of Mexican mothers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 1995. *19*(6): p. 669-679.
73. Covell, K. & Howe, R.B., The Challenge of Children’s Rights for Canada. 2001, Waterloo, ON: Wilfred Laurier University Press.
74. Coyl, D. D., Roggman, L. A., & Newland, L. A. (2002). Stress, maternal depression, and negative mother-infant interactions in relation to infant attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, *23*(1-2), 145-163.
75. Crandall, M., Chiu, B., & Sheehan, K. (2006). Injury in the first year of life: Risk factors and solutions for high-risk families. Journal of Surgical Research, *133*, 7-10.
76. Cramm, L., Elgar, F. J., & Pickett, W. (2023). Corporal punishment bans and adolescent suicide rates: An international ecological study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 137, 106022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106022
77. Crockenberg, S., Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers. Child Development, 1987. *58*: p. 964-975.
78. Csorba, J., Rózsa, S., Vetro, A., Gadoros, J., Makra, J., Somogyi, E., Kaczvinszky, E., & Kapornay, K. (2001). Family- and school-related stresses in depressed Hungarian children. European Psychiatry, *16*, 18-26.
79. Cuartas, J. (2022). The effect of spanking on early social-emotional skills.  Child Development (Vol. 93, pp. 180–193). https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13646  
80. Cuartas, J. (2021). Corporal punishment and early childhood development in 49 low- and middle-income countries. Child Abuse & Neglect, 120, 105205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105205
81. Cuartas, J., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ma, J., & Castillo, B. (2019). Civil conflict, domestic violence, and poverty as predictors of corporal punishment in Colombia. Child Abuse & Neglect, 90, 108–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.02.003
82. Cuartas, J., Weissman, D. G., Sheridan, M. A., Lengua, L., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2021). Corporal punishment and elevated neural response to threat in children. Child Development, 92(3), 821–832. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13565
83. Culp, R. E., Culp, A. M., Dengler, B., & Maisano, P. C. (1999). First-time young mothers living in rural communities use corporal punishment with their toddlers. Journal of Community Psychology, *27*, 503-509.
84. Curran, F. C., & Kitchin, J. (2018). Estimating the Relationship between Corporal Punishment Use and School Suspensions: Longitudinal Evidence from the Civil Rights Data Collection. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956x.2018.1435036
85. Davidson, H. (1997). The legal aspects of corporal punishment in the home: When does physical discipline cross the line to become child abuse? Children’s Legal Rights Journal, *17*, 18-29.
86. Davis, P. W. (1996). Threats of corporal punishment as verbal aggression: A naturalistic study. Child Abuse and Neglect, *20*, 289-304.
87. Day, D. E., & Roberts, M. W. (1983). An analysis of the physical punishment component of a parenttraining program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, *11*, 141-152 [quote from p. 150].
88. Day, R. D., Peterson, G. W., & McCracken, C. (1998). Predicting spanking of younger and older children by mothers and fathers. Journal of Marriage and the Family, *60*, 79-94.
89. Decima, Report to the Institute for the Prevention of Child Abuse on a Nation- wide Survey of Attitudes Toward Child Rearing. 1988, Toronto, ON: Decima Research.
90. Decima Research Inc., Toronto Public Health – Family Abuse Prevention. 2003, Decima Research Inc.
91. Derella, O. J., Burke, J. D., Stepp, S. D., & Hipwell, A. E. (2019). Reciprocity in undesirable Parent–Child behavior? verbal aggression, corporal punishment, and girls’ oppositional defiant symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 49(3), 420–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2019.1603109
92. Dietz, T. L. (2000). Disciplining children: Characteristics associated with the use of corporal punishment. Child Abuse and Neglect, *24*(12), 1529-1542.
93. Differences in Parents’ Attitudes toward spanking across socioeconomic status and region, 1986–2016. (2022). Social Indicators Research, 133–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02803-7
94. Dobbs, T. A., Smith, A. B., & Taylor, N. J. (2006). “No, we don’t get a say, children just suffer the consequences”: Children talk about family discipline. International Journal of Children’s Rights, *14*, 137-156.
95. Douglas, E. M., & Straus, M. A. (2006). Assault and injury of dating partners by university students in 19 countries and its relation to corporal punishment experienced as a child. European Journal of Criminology, *3*, 293-318.
96. DuRant, R.H., Cadenhead, C., Pendergrast, R.A., Slavens, G., & Linder, C.W., Factors associated with the use of violence among urban Black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 1994. *84*(4): p. 612-617.
97. Dubanoski, R. A., Inaba, M., & Gerkewicz, K. (1983). Corporal punishment in schools: Myths, problems and alternatives. Child abuse & neglect, 7(3), 271-278.
98. Duong, H. T. (2021). Applying the integrative model to predict intention to use corporal punishment among low-income parents. Health Education & Behavior, 50(2), 250–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/10901981211052881
99. Duong, H. T. (2021). Childhood Experiences and Attitudes toward Corporal Punishment: The Mediating Role of Perceived Efficacy of Alternative Discipline Strategies among Low-income Black, Hispanic, and White Parents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(19–20), NP18266–NP18290. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211035879
100. Duong, H. T., Monahan, J. L., Kollar, L. M. M., & Klevens, J. (2020). Identifying knowledge, self-efficacy and response efficacy of alternative discipline strategies among low-income Black, Latino and White parents. Health Education Research, 36(2), 192–205. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyaa053
101. Duong, H. T., Monahan, J. L., Kollar, L. M. M., & Klevens, J. (2021). Examining sources of social norms supporting child corporal punishment among Low-Income Black, Latino, and White parents. Health Communication, 37(11), 1413–1422. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1895418
102. Duong, H. T., & Sirohi, A. (2023). Where do perceived norms supporting child corporal punishment come from? A study of Low-Income Parents. Health Communication, 39(5), 915–926. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2023.2193754
103. Duong, H. T., Sirohi, A., & Baggett, K. M. (2023). Predicting Black Parents’ Attitudes Toward Corporal Punishment: A Moderated-Mediation Model of Frequency and Valence of Childhood Experiences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(9–10), 2103–2126. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231214591
104. Duong, H. T., Van Nguyen, L. T., Vu, H. T., & Trinh, A. T. (2019). Association between online social influence and corporal punishment: an experimental study. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 37(2), 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-019-00632-9
105. Duncan, R.D., Maltreatment by parents and peers: The relationship between child abuse, bully victimization, and psychological distress. Child Maltreatment, 1999. *4*: p. 45-55.
106. Durrant, J. E. (1999). Evaluating the success of Sweden’s corporal punishment ban. Child Abuse and Neglect, *23*, 435-448.
107. Durrant, J. E. (1999). Physical punishment, culture, and context. Child Abuse & Neglect, *23*(8), 777-779.
108. Durrant, J. E. (2003). Legal reform and attitudes toward physical punishment in Sweden. International Journal of Children’s Rights, *11*, 147-173.
109. Durrant, J. E., Broberg, A. G., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (1999). Predicting maternal use of physical punishment from maternal characteristics in Sweden and Canada. In P. Hastings, & C. C. Piotrowski (Eds.), New directions in child development: Conflict as a context for understanding maternal beliefs about child rearing and children’s misbehavior (pp. 25-41). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
110. Durrant, J. E., & Ensom, R. (2012). Physical punishment of children: Lessons from 20 years of research. Canadian Medical Association Journal, *184*(12), 1373-1377.
111. Durrant, J. E., & Ensom, R. (2017). Twenty-Five years of Physical Punishment research: What have we learned?*. Journal of Korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(1), 20–24. https://doi.org/10.5765/jkacap.2017.28.1.20
112. Durrant, J. E., & Janson, S. (2005). Law reform, corporal punishment and child abuse: The case of Sweden. International Review of Victimology, 12(2), 139-158.
113. Durrant, J. E., Trocmé, N., Fallon, B., Milne, C., Black, T., & Knoke, D. (2006). Punitive violence against children in Canada. CECW Information Sheet #41E. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto, Faculty of Social Work.
114. Durrant, J.E., Public attitudes toward corporal punishment in Canada, in Family Violence Against Children, D. Frehsee, W. Horn, & K.-D. Bussmann, Editors. 1996, New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter. p. 19-26.
115. Durrant, J.E., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Broberg, A.G., Maternal beliefs about physical punishment in Sweden and Canada. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 2003. *34*: p. 586-604.
116. Durrant, J.E., Spare the rod and spoil the child? The physical discipline of children and child abuse. Institute for Social Research Newsletter, 1993. *8*(1).
117. Durrant, J.E., Trends in youth crime and well-being since the abolition of corporal punishment in Sweden. Youth & Society, 2000. *31*(4): p. 437-455.
118. Dynes, M., Knox, M., Hunter, K., Srivathsal, Y., & Caldwell, I. (2019). Impact of education about physical punishment of children on the attitudes of future physicians. Children S Health Care, 49(2), 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/02739615.2019.1678472
119. Eamon, M. K. (2001). Antecedents and socioemotional consequences of physical punishment on children in two-parent families. Child Abuse & Neglect, *25*(6), 787-802.
120. Eamon, M. K. (2002). Influences and mediators of the effect of poverty on young adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, *31*(3), 231-242.
121. Eamon, M. K., & Altshuler, S. J. (2004). Can we predict disruptive school behavior? Children & Schools, *26*, 23-37.
122. Eamon, M. K. & Zuehl, R. M., Maternal depression and physical punishment as mediators of the effect of poverty on socioemotional problems of children in single-mother families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 2001. *71*(2): p. 218-226.
123. Edwards, L. P. (1996). Corporal punishment and the legal system. Santa Clara Law Review, *36*, 983.
124. Elgar, F. J., Donnelly, P. D., Michaelson, V., Gariépy, G., Riehm, K. E., Walsh, S. D., & Pickett, W. (2018). Corporal punishment bans and physical fighting in adolescents: an ecological study of 88 countries. BMJ Open, 8(9), e021616. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021616
125. Ellison, C. G., Bartkowski, J. P., & Segal, M. L. (1996). Conservative Protestantism and the parental use of corporal punishment. Social Forces, *74*, 1003-1028.
126. Emery, R. E., & Laumann-Billings, L. (1998). An overview of child custody mediation research. Family and Conciliation Courts Review, *36*(3), 296-310.
127. EndCorporalPunishment.org — overview and synthesis on NHZs as a norm-change strategy (summary & resources). https://endcorporalpunishment.org/no-hit-zones/. End Corporal Punishment
128. Eron, L. D., Walder, L. O., & Lefkowitz, M. M. (1971). Learning of aggression in children. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co.
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